Hate speech on X was persistently 50% increased for no less than eight months after tech billionaire Elon Musk purchased the social media platform, new analysis has discovered.
The analysis regarded on the prevalence of overt hate speech together with a variety of racist, homophobic and transphobic slurs.
The research, printed right now in PLOS ONE, was performed by a group of researchers led by Daniel Hickney from the College of California, Berkeley.
It clearly demonstrates how a platform initially invented to assist family and friends keep in contact has now metamorphosed into a spot the place hate speech is prolific. That is particularly regarding given hate speech on-line has been linked to violent hate crimes offline.
A protracted listing of guarantees
On October 27 2022, Musk formally bought X (then often known as Twitter) for US$44 billion and have become its CEO. His takeover was accompanied by guarantees to cut back hate speech on the platform and sort out bots and different inauthentic accounts.
However after he purchased X, Musk made a number of adjustments to the platform to cut back content material moderation. For instance, in November 2022 he fired a lot of the corporate’s full time workforce. He additionally fired outsourced content material moderators who tracked abuse on X, regardless of analysis exhibiting social medial platforms with excessive ranges of content material moderation include much less hate speech.
The next month, Musk additionally disbanded the platform’s Belief and Security Council – a volunteer advisory group of unbiased human rights leaders and teachers shaped in 2016 to combat hate speech and different issues on the platform.
Earlier analysis has proven hate speech elevated on X instantly after Musk took over. So too did the prevalence of most kinds of bots.
This new research is the primary to indicate that this wasn’t an anomaly.
Hate speech together with homophobic, racist and transphobic slurs was considerably increased on X after Elon Musk purchased the platform. The black strains symbolize customary errors.
Hickey et al., 2025 / PLOS One
Greater than 4 million posts
The research examined 4.7 million English language posts on X from the start of 2022 via to June 9 2023. This era contains the ten months earlier than Musk purchased X and the eight months afterwards.
The research measured overt hate speech, the which means of which was clear to anybody who noticed it – speech attacking id teams or utilizing poisonous language. It didn’t measure covert kinds of hate speech, comparable to coded language utilized by some extremist teams to unfold hate however plausibly deny doing so.
In addition to measuring the quantity of hate speech on X, the research additionally measured how a lot different customers engaged with this materials by liking it.
The researchers’ entry to X knowledge was reduce off throughout the research as a consequence of a coverage change by the platform, changing free entry to permitted educational researchers with fee choices that are typically unaffordable. This considerably hampered their skill to gather pattern posts. However they don’t point out whether or not it affected their outcomes.
A transparent improve in hate
The research discovered “a clear increase” within the common variety of posts containing hate speech following Musk’s buy of X. Particularly, the quantity of posts containing hate speech was “consistently” 50% increased after Musk took over X in comparison with beforehand – a bounce from an estimated common of two,179 to three,246 posts containing hate speech per week.
Transphobic slurs noticed the best improve, rising from a mean of roughly 115 posts per week earlier than Musk’s acquisition to a mean of 418 afterwards.
The extent of person engagement with posts containing hate speech additionally elevated beneath Musk’s watch. For instance, the weekly fee at which hate speech content material was preferred by customers jumped by 70%.
The researchers say these outcomes recommend both hate speech wasn’t taken down, hateful customers turned extra lively, the platform’s algorithm unintentionally promoted hate speech to customers who like such content material – or a mix of those potentialities.
The research additionally detected no lower within the exercise of inauthentic accounts on X. In reality, it discovered a “potential increase” within the variety of bot accounts partly based mostly on a big upswing in posts selling cryptocurrency, that are sometimes related to bots.
Elon Musk has more and more aligned himself with extremist far-right political events, comparable to Various for Germany.
Sebastian Willnow/DPA through AP
An essential data-driving deep dive
There have been various limitations to the research. For instance, it solely measured hate speech posts in English, which accounts for under 31% of posts on the platform.
Even so, the research is a crucial, data-driven deep dive into the state of X. It reveals it’s a platform the place hate speech is prolific. It additionally reveals Musk has didn’t fulfil his earlier guarantees to handle issues on X comparable to hate speech and bot exercise.
As Musk himself mentioned on the White Home earlier this week: “Some of the things I say will be incorrect and should be corrected”.
